Research and Development Records

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Stakeholder Perspective Lenses

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Individual, Community, Organizational, Societal, Intermediary, and Private Sector.

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Individual = personal access, skills, identity factors.

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Community = peer networks, cultural values, grassroots support.

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Organizational = institutional practices, budgets, IT infrastructure.

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Societal = laws, regulations, systemic norms.

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Intermediary = nonprofits, consortia, advocacy coalitions bridging actors.

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Private Sector = market-driven innovation, CSR initiatives, investment flows.

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Educational & PedagogicalThe systems of learning, teaching, and instructional design that shape how digital literacy and skills are developed. Includes formal curricula, teacher training, and pedagogy that embeds equitable technology use.

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Stakeholder Engagement & EmpowermentThe processes of involving individuals, families, and communities in shaping digital initiatives. Empowerment ensures interventions are trusted, co-created, and responsive to actual community needs.

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Barriers: Structural or systemic obstacles.

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Enablers: Factors that create access or opportunity.

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Amplifiers: Forces that magnify or accelerate impact.

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Solutions: Concrete interventions classified as solutions that directly address needs.

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Adverse: Negative or unintended consequences.

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Technology: Treated in multiple ways, not just a solution, but depending on the context, can be a barrier, an enabler, an amplifier, or an adverse depending on use.

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Technology & Infrastructure AccessThe physical and technical backbone of the digital ecosystem, including networks, broadband, hardware, and platforms. Focused on availability, quality, and reliability of the infrastructure that underpins digital access.

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AI & EmergingThe disruptive and evolving technologies (artificial intelligence, IoT, AR/VR, blockchain, etc.) that present both new opportunities and risks for digital equity. Ensures emerging innovations are accessible and inclusive.

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To test the application of the model, it has been applied to five scenarios. A further element has been added to provide additional context to identify the data sources that would be needed to consider the scenario.

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1. Hotspot Program (School District)In the school district hotspot program, the barrier is not connectivity itself but affordability and equitable access to learning outside of school. The school by distributing hotspots, acts as an infrastructure provider enabling connectivity, while teachers and families amplify the intervention through curriculum redesign and digital use at home. The program succeeds when privacy safeguards and communication are handled well, ensuring it functions as an enabler rather than an adverse outcome.

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School District IT & Inventory Records - number of hotspots distributed, device type, costs, loss rates, with breakdowns by grade and classroom.

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Student Connectivity & Usage Logs - login data, bandwidth consumption, participation in digital assignments, use of video, types of applications used connected to the curriculum.

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Learning Management Systems (LMS) - student logins, engagement metrics, assignment submission rates, and rates attendance.

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Surveys of Students, Parents, Teachers - affordability, end user satisfaction, literacy and knowledge, and privacy concerns.

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FERPA & CIPA Compliance Reports - data privacy, filtering alerts, categories of filtering, and online safety monitoring.

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Community ISP Coverage Maps - service availability from local metrics and FCC data sources, and affordability comparisons across types of access and service providers.

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2. MDU Upgrade (Apartment Complex)For a multi-dwelling unit (MDU) upgrade, the intervention is reliant on infrastructure, with fiber and smart-home installations serving as the core enabler. Property owners often act as barriers if costs, incentives, or investments are misaligned, while ISPs provide the solution by delivering upgraded infrastructure. Success depends on policy alignment and cultural outreach to ensure residents adopt and trust the upgrades deployed, while training programs and government oversight amplify the long-term impact if there are subsidies and connected policies impacting service implementation and delivery. Without these supports, the system risks adverse outcomes like unfair pricing or unreliable performance.

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Infrastructure is necessary but insufficient - The technological upgrades is the enabler, but without literacy, cultural outreach, and affordability programs, adoption will lag.

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Economic sustainability matters - Bulk service contracts or subsidies prevent broadband from becoming a barrier. Residents need affordable options, not just high-speed availability. This may also include multiple vendor options.

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Community adoption hinges on trust - Outreach (cultural + communicative roles) must address privacy, language, and usability, or residents may resist smart-home adoption. An awareness campaign will also be needed before, during, and after the rollout process.

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Feedback loops strengthen outcomes - Data-driven monitoring ensures that the intervention remains an enabler instead of transforming into an adverse outcome (e.g., if costs rise or devices are insecure due to the service or infrastructure rollout).

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Resource - The tangible and intangible assets (funding, personnel, equipment, time) required to support equitable digital inclusion.

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Economic - Financial and structural conditions that determine whether individuals or communities can afford and sustain access to digital resources.

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Financial - The specific monetary instruments, costs, and funding flows that affect access (e.g., affordability of plans, subsidies, capital investment).

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Institutional - The norms, practices, and structures of organizations (schools, governments, companies) that shape digital access and literacy opportunities.

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3. Rural CommunityIn the rural community scenario, the dominant barrier is geographic isolation and the high cost of last-mile access, and no options for middle-mile access. Federal and state funding shifts these challenges into enablers by underwriting fiber and tower infrastructure, while ISPs transform them into solutions. Schools and libraries act as amplifiers by embedding digital literacy and serving as trusted anchor institutions, while local governments amplify adoption through data-driven decision making. If governance fails or affordability programs are absent, the system, and installed infrastructure risks being underutilized even when the infrastructure investment is available for example through the BEAD program.

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FCC Broadband Maps & BEAD Program Data - served/unserved designations, funding allocations, and proposals submitted.

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Middle-Mile & Last-Mile Infrastructure Reports - NTIA, USDA, FCC, local and state broadband offices.

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Local Government Planning Records - zoning, permitting, tower locations, historical permits, and right-of-way permits.

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School & Library Connectivity Reports - Erate and USAC historical data, previously funded services, and institutional access levels.

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Adoption & Affordability Surveys - household take-up rates, digital literacy gaps, and local education attainment.

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Crowdsourced Speed Test Data (e.g., Ookla, M-Lab) - end-user reported bandwidth reports for the validation of coverage.

Abstract as recorded in the literature export

Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Education claims to have the potential for building personalised curricula, as well as bringing opportunities for democratising education and creating a renaissance of new ways of teaching and learning. Millions of students are starting to benefit from the use of these technologies, but millions more around the world are not, due to the digital divide and deep pre-existing social and educational inequalities. If this trend continues, the first large-scale delivery of AI in Education could lead to greater educational inequality, along with a global misallocation of educational resources motivated by the current techno-solutionist narrative, which proposes technological solutions as a quick and flawless way to solve complex real-world problems. This work focuses on posing questions about the future of AI in Education, intending to initiate the pressing conversation that could set the right foundations (e.g., inclusion and diversity) for a new generation of education that is permeated with AI technology. The main goal of our opinion piece is to conceptualise a sustainable, large-scale and inclusive AI for the education ecosystem that facilitates equitable, high-quality lifelong learning opportunities for all. The contribution starts by synthesising how AI might change how we learn and teach, focusing on the case of personalised learning companions and assistive technology for disability. Then, we move on to discuss some socio-technical features that will be crucial to avoiding the perils of these AI systems worldwide (and perhaps ensuring their success by leveraging more inclusive education). This work also discusses the potential of using AI together with free, participatory and democratic resources, such as Wikipedia, Open Educational Resources and open-source tools. We emphasise the need for collectively designing human-centred, transparent, interactive and collaborative AI-based algorithms that empower and give complete agency to stakeholders, as well as supporting new emerging pedagogies. Finally, we ask what it would take for this educational revolution to provide egalitarian and empowering access to education that transcends any political, cultural, language, geographical and learning-ability barriers, so that educational systems can be responsive to all learners’ needs.

Contributions as recorded in the literature export

We argue that massively investing resources in such technology poses the risk of misallocating necessary resources to enhance the current lack of access to high-quality education around the globe

Abstract as recorded in the literature export

El Paso, Texas, like many communities along the United States/Mexico border, suffers from a lack of access to many social determinants of health, especially in low-income neighborhoods. These long-standing problems have only been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. The Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center El Paso Health Education and Awareness Team (EP-HEAT) is an organization that was established with a focus on disseminating health information to the community. EP-HEAT received funding from Microsoft Corporation to facilitate technology education workshops for underserved populations. These workshops were held in English and Spanish and attempted to improve social determinants of health in the community which can be negatively exacerbated by a lack of digital inclusion. Community members who attended workshops completed a LinkedIn Learning Path, or both were offered an anonymous post-course survey with a mixed method questionnaire on how their knowledge of basic technology or job skills was improved by engaging with the provided workshops and learning paths. Overall, 80% of community members who participated in the workshops reported learning a new skill, and 91% of participants who started a LinkedIn Learning Path were able to finish. The workshops were well received by the community and highlighted the potential for these programs to enhance digital skills and upward workforce mobility.

Contributions as recorded in the literature export

To address the multiple crises posed by the COVID-19 pandemic to the residents of zip code 79905, TTUHSC El Paso Health Education and Awareness Team facilitated a unique partnership with Microsoft and LinkedIn to increase basic technology literacy and access to LinkedIn Learning Paths _x000D_ _x000D_ To address the multiple crises posed by the COVID-19 pandemic to the residents of zip code 79905, TTUHSC EP-HEAT facilitated a unique partnership with Microsoft and LinkedIn to increase basic technology literacy and access to LinkedIn Learning Paths. In addition, EP-HEAT initiated an innovative pilot program that allowed community members to participate and complete the LinkedIn Learning Paths. Feedback from participants was very positive; most participants learned a new skill and formed connections with EP-HEAT Promotores, students, and faculty, which is still ongoing.

Limitations as recorded in the literature export

Despite the initial success of the Computer Basic Skills Program and LinkedIn Paths, several limitations were present. The first limitation was the lack of access to technology,[27] this was mitigated by providing participants with computer equipment such as the Lenovo ThinkPads. However, this would present a significant financial burden to organizations lacking substantial funding. Secondly, despite being provided with a computer platform to complete learning pathways, it is common among minority and low socioeconomic communities to have difficulty accessing the internet at home,[28] with some people only having access through phones or public places such as libraries. Third, although the LinkedIn Learning Paths were offered in multiple languages, the Spanish courses were often longer than their English counterparts. As one final limitation to other similar programs, the LinkedIn Learning Paths were only cost-free for a limited amount of time during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, any program wishing to utilize these materials would also face an additional financial burden. These costs and limitations would need to be mitigated to provide benefit to the community without being a burden for organizations.

Abstract as recorded in the literature export

Extant literature has increased our understanding of the multifaceted nature of the digital divide, showing that it entails more than access to information and communication resources. Research indicates that digital inequality mirrors to a significant extent offline inequality related to socioeconomic resources. Bridging digital divides is critical for sustainable digitalized societies. Ιn this paper, we present a literature review of Information Systems research on the digital divide within settings with advanced technological infrastructures and economies over the last decade (2010-2020). The review results are organized in a concept matrix mapping contributing factors and measures for crossing the divides. Building on the results, we elaborate a research agenda that proposes [1] extending established models of digital inequalities with new variables and use of theory, [2] critically examining the effects of digital divide interventions, and [3] better linking digital divide research with research on sustainability.The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10796-020-10096-3.

Contributions as recorded in the literature export

There are high expectations for active citizensrole based on online services; we need to be concerned of digital inequalities ensuring fairness and inclusiveness _x000D_ _x000D_ The present work takes stock of Information Systems research on the digital divide by synthesizing insights from publications in the 2010–2020 period. The review process was performed with rigor while selecting and critically assessing earlier research. Nevertheless, this work is not without limitations. We have confined the literature search within one specific discipline (Information Systems research). This limits the breadth of the review but facilitates comprehensiveness and depth in the development of insights about the body of literature analyzed. Furthermore, focusing on Information Systems research facilitates the development of a research agenda that is relevant to the target discipline through the identification of gaps and extrapolations from previous work.

Limitations as recorded in the literature export

This work is not without limitations. We have confined the literature search within one specific discipline (Information Systems research). This limits the breadth of the review but facilitates comprehensiveness and depth in the development of insights about the body of literature analyzed. Furthermore, focusing on Information Systems research facilitates the development of a research agenda that is relevant to the target discipline through the identification of gaps and extrapolations from previous work.

Abstract as recorded in the literature export

Over several years, locally-initiated and operated Internet infrastructure projects have attempted to provide online connectivity and simultaneously achieve various social goals. Many generations of do-it-yourself network efforts that are either wireless, such as community mesh networks, or wired, such as fiber cooperatives, exist, but in the United States scaled developments have been stalled for a variety of reasons. This research examines the history of local connectivity efforts as well as technologies designed to cultivate sharing or commons organizational approaches. By exploring instances of community-based or -oriented networking efforts, we identify some of the noneconomic benefits that might be realized with certain technologies and organizational and governance structures. Technological, social, regulatory and economic logics that have shaped historical opportunities for local responses to connectivity needs in the U.S. are not necessarily inevitable; alternative approaches do exist. Improved social and technical outcomes for connectivity may be possible, especially when catalyzed by supportive policies.

Contributions as recorded in the literature export

Using a historical framing of Internet access against the backdrop of U.S communication policy reveals how opportunities for innovation and for enhancing local communities have been dampened by policies and assumptions that create impediments for local connectivity

Abstract as recorded in the literature export

In response to this digital divide between developed and developing countries in their use of computers to prepare students for the global economy, the World Bank and, subsequently, the World Links organization provided schools in developing countries with networked computers and training that supports integration of ICT into teaching. This article synthesizes findings from 3 years of evaluative research on the program. The findings are based on surveys of teachers, students, administrators, and technology coordinators, as well as a field test assessment of student learning. The study examines the services provided, documents their impact, and draws implications for policy in developing countries. 2003 Elsevier Ltd.

Contributions as recorded in the literature export

Our findings indicate that the program provided a variety of intended services to schools and teachers and that these were effectively implemented in participating schools and classrooms _x000D_ _x000D_ In summary, while many schools received computers from the World Links program and leveraged these donations to obtain more resources, the primary service provided by the program was teacher training. Training covered both the use of hardware, software, and the Internet, as well as the use of computers within new, constructivist-oriented pedagogical strategies.

Abstract as recorded in the literature export

Broadband access in the home is a necessity, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic. Increasingly, connectivity is of vital importance for school, work, family, and friends. Existing international research on the implementation of broadband has studied its adoption patterns with a focus on the rural/urban digital divide. This paper explores the digital divide in a case study of the seventh largest city, by population, in the United States; San Antonio is a majority-minority city where over half of the people are Hispanic. This paper focuses on the five key affordability factors that drive broadband adoption. Researchers test social exclusion theory, the structural facets of poverty and social marginality to ascertain its potential impact on broadband access. The authors conducted a survey in both English and Spanish to learn more about the affordability factors that influence the broadband digital divide. Through our analysis, we found evidence that four of the factors (geographical disparities, profit-based discrimination, technology deployment cost, and socio-economic factors) played a role in the digital divide in this case study. The results of this study demonstrate that the digital divide is not exclusively a rural/urban digital divide, but can also occur in an intra-city context. This is especially evident in low-income areas within the city because they have substantially lower broadband adoption rates. The results of this study demonstrate the importance of looking closely at issues of social exclusion of marginalized groups and the affordability of broadband access intra-city.

Contributions as recorded in the literature export

This paper examined broadband access and affordability using five key characteristics taken from the literature and tested them through a case study of San Antonio using the social exclusion theoretical understanding _x000D_ _x000D_ Conclusion and limitationsThis paper examined broadband access and affordability using a community survey of residents in our case study of San Antonio. Our original research question asked about factors that explain access and affordability of broadband in the home. We applied the social exclusion theory as a way of understanding how broadband access impacts marginalized groups within a city. Evidence was found to support four out of five tested hypotheses. There was a digital divide especially in terms of geography and socioeconomic status. This confirmed the social exclusion theory as it relates to marginalized groups and broadband access. In that, certain disadvantaged groups within the city are just not able to afford this important technology to improve their quality of life. This is especially evident with stay at home orders in San Antonio, and other parts of the U.S as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, with nearly a quarter of the residents with no broadband at home to complete schoolwork, work from home, and complete other critical tasks. Ensuring widespread wireless adoption is a key strategy to bridging the digital divide. Addressing poverty through education and job-skills trainings to improve income and socio-economic factors, as well as policy initiatives that address the technical challenges of deployment can contribute to diffusion and affordability of broadband. These results may help guide the development of more inclusive policies in San Antonio and may be useful for other communities. Further, the five factors from the literature may provide a useful framework for studies in other communities and nations.

Limitations as recorded in the literature export

There are some limitations to this research that should be noted. First, we are limited in that we just provide a case study of one city in the U.S.; therefore, our results may not be generalizable to other cities across the U.S or internationally. Second, we are limited in that although we tried to get access to all socioeconomic groups in the community, particularly underserved low income and minority residents, our results are still slightly skewed to those in higher income categories compared to the American Community Survey. Finally, the study design is cross-sectional, which severely constrains any cause and effect conclusions. However, we controlled for key variables identified in the literature so the patterns identified might generalize to other urban communities.From these limitations, future research might include extending this study to other cities in the U.S or internationally. For example, assuming parallel questions, one could compare responses to those from the neighboring city of Austin, which has over 95% broadband access. Another possibility is to do follow up interviews with those respondents that did not have broadband access to explore more fully reasons for lack of access and consequences of the lack of access for life choices and opportunities. Further, it would be valuable to follow up with respondents to determine how things may have changed in the new COVID-19 era.Authors' statementThe authors of this paper would like to thank the City of San Antonio Office of Innovation for their generous support for funding this survey. The authors would also like to thank the peer reviewers for their helpful guidance.

Abstract as recorded in the literature export

For a long time, a common opinion among policy-makers was that the digital divide problem would be solved when a country’s Internet connection rate reaches saturation. However, scholars of the second-level digital divide have concluded that the divides in Internet skills and type of use continue to expand even after physical access is universal. This study—based on an online survey among a representative sample of the Dutch population—indicates that the first-level digital divide remains a problem in one of the richest and most technologically advanced countries in the world. By extending basic physical access combined with material access, the study finds that a diversity in access to devices and peripherals, device-related opportunities, and the ongoing expenses required to maintain the hardware, software, and subscriptions affect existing inequalities related to Internet skills, uses, and outcomes.

Contributions as recorded in the literature export

We focus on specific aspects of material access, namely, device opportunity, device and peripheral diversity, and maintenance expenses

Limitations as recorded in the literature export

Limitations and future researchWe provided a large-scale, empirical investigation of material access inequalities in the Netherlands. Although the considered aspects provide a comprehensive view of material access, we did not account for the quality of the devices under investigation. For example, processor speeds differ between laptops. Future studies may account for more technical details regarding the devices under investigation, as it is likely that differences between tablet use, for example, are greater among population categories when the technical capacities of tablets are considered. Furthermore, given the rapid changes in smartphone capabilities, it is important to revisit questions of the digital divide with respect to mobile technology (Hargittai and Kim, 2010). In this case, differences in device opportunity might decrease between devices. However, it could also mean that inequality in the technical potential of devices is growing.In this study, we have revealed that inequalities in material access are present in the Netherlands. Structural differences appear when particular segments of the population systematically and over longer periods of time take advantage of better devices and peripherals, while others use devices that enable fewer opportunities. Future research should determine whether there is growth or reduction in the multiple material access gaps identified in this article, from a longitudinal perspective.

Abstract as recorded in the literature export

Recently, several digital divide scholars suggested that a shift is needed from a focus on binary Internet access (first-level digital divide) and Internet skills and use (second-level digital divide) to a third-level digital divide in which the tangible outcomes of Internet use are highlighted. A plethora of studies have been conducted to identify determinants of digital divides. Unfortunately, there is a lack of consistency in the terminology used. Moreover, terms are often not theoretically grounded. Therefore, we conducted a systematic literature review of digital divide determinants. The results show that the third-level digital divide was underexposed. The primary focus is on Internet use. More importantly, the identified determinants show that digital divide research is largely limited to sociodemographic and socioeconomic determinants.

Contributions as recorded in the literature export

We have developed a framework of six digital skills

Abstract as recorded in the literature export

The COVID-19 pandemic has disordered the educational process across the globe, as schools suddenly had to provide their teaching in an online environment. One question that raised immediate concern is the potential impact of this forced and rapid digitalization on inequalities in the learning process by social class, migration background and gender. Elaborating on the literature on the digital divide, we study inequalities in multi-level digital readiness of students and schools before the pandemic took place. Using data from the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) on seven countries, and the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) on 45 countries, both from 2018, we demonstrate that schools and students vary in their readiness for digital education. However, school variation in digital readiness is not systematically related to student composition by SES and migration background. We thus find little evidence for a hypothesized ‘multi-level’ digital divide, which would result from systematic gradients in the readiness of school environments for digital education by student composition. More important drivers for a digital divide during the COVID-19 pandemic are the ICT skills students have, which are strongly related to students’ socioeconomic background. For digital education to be effective for every student, it is important that schools focus on improving students’ digital skills.

Contributions as recorded in the literature export

We examined the digital divide in a multilayered framework, by examining students’ individual ICT skills and use, and the ICT infrastructure and competencies in the schools that students attend

Limitations as recorded in the literature export

Limitations, future directions for research, and s Our study also knows some limitations. First, it does not reveal how the rapid digitalization during school closures has affected (inequality in) student outcomes like academic performance. Given the educational situation during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is important to investigate whether the demonstrated digital divides strengthen the third-level digital divide concerned with the (educational) outcomes of access and usage of technology (c.f. [13,27,37]). New research may want to focus on the consequences of digital inequalities at both the student and the school level. More causal evidence is also needed on the effects of schools, something our study was unable to consider, as the non-random sorting of students into schools is always an issue in assessing school effects.

Status as recorded in the project inventory

Historical

Target Population(s) as recorded in the project inventory

Low-income parents of school-age youth

Contribution to Closing the Digital Divide as recorded in the project inventory

Strengthened parent engagement with school digital resources through training, refurbished computers, and low-cost 4G.

Key Activities / Technology as recorded in the project inventory

Parent University electives; digital literacy; refurbished computer incentive; Mobile Citizen low-cost 4G.

Entities Involved as recorded in the project inventory

Cleveland Housing Network; OneCommunity; Cleveland Metropolitan School District

Effort Timing as recorded in the project inventory

BTOP-era, before 2013

Inventory text as supplied

Tech Support and Mentorship Platforms: Online mentoring programs, forums, and AI-powered virtual assistants can provide users with real-time help, reducing anxiety and fear of technology.

Inventory text as supplied

Cognitive Load Reduction Tools: Tools designed to reduce cognitive load, such as simplified user interfaces, can help individuals avoid feeling overwhelmed when learning new technologies. These tools focus on easy navigation, clear instructions, and minimal distractions to promote better learning outcomes.